社会が、ますます機能化と能率化を高度におしすすめてゆくとき、言葉は言葉の本質の内部では、ますます現実から背き、ますます現実からとおく疎遠になるという面をもつものであり、言語は機能化にむかえばむかうほど、この言語本質内部での疎遠な面を無声化し、沈黙に似た重さをその背後に背負おうとする。つまりコミュニケーションの機能であることを拒否しようとする。
(吉本隆明『自立の思想的拠点』徳間書店)
Besides being the most recondite and the longest sentence that I read this week, methinks it has a considerable quantity of truth in it.
Showing posts with label languages. Show all posts
Showing posts with label languages. Show all posts
Wednesday, December 24, 2008
Wednesday, December 20, 2006
A Semantic Approach to wa/ga Distinction
The esoteric distinction between Japanese postpositions -wa and -ga has caused so much rancour all around the galaxy that there exist several planets where the inhabitants pick up sundry exegeses on this topic from the street and throw them at each other in greeting. What we will say below covers a small semantic difference of the two particles. It is hoped that this is going to be a short essay lest it should cause serious damage when used as a projectile by an enraged reader.
We begin by comparing how -wa and -ga have different implications for a statement that English expresses with; "R2-D2 sang Rigoletto."
1. R2-D2はリゴレットを歌った。
2. R2-D2がリゴレットを歌った。
[wa]
S ⊂ P (the subject, S, is part of the set that meets the predicate, P)
[ga]
S ⊃ P (the subject, S, includes as its component the set that meets the predicate, P)
This explanation for wa seems justifiable but ga poses a problem, if we consider the following pair.
3. OK自然数は整数である（ℕ ⊂ ℤ）。
4. *整数が自然数である（ℤ ⊃ ℕ）。
We now consider a set of opera performances in order to analyse the semantic implications of -wa and -ga. The table below lists opera performances at Carnegie Hall in the summer of 2006.
Any useful list of such performances should tell vital information such as performer, date and the performed musical pieces. The table captures them in the three columns, for which we now postulate an important relationship; that each column has values independent of those in other columns. The name of a performer poses no constraints on the date he can perform or the piece he can sing, for example.
Looking at performances on 07/01 and 09/03, we realise that Cheshire Cat was the only performer who sang Othelo during this season. Also, the record for 09/01 shows that R2-D2 was the only one to sing Rigoletto. Without contradicting other performance records, wa/ga postpositions can be used to express these facts.
5. チェシャ猫がオテロを歌った。
(where p is an instance of performance);
7. ∃p (performer = Cheshire Cat, item = Othelo)
AND ∄ p (performer ≠ Cheshire Cat, item = Othelo)
The first clause states that there is indeed a record of Cheshire Cat singing Othelo at the prestigious venue, whereas the second one says there was no other performer who sang Othelo. Note that this formulation is irrelevant of other performances of the grinning feline. In fact Cheshire Cat sang Lohengrin too. This, however, does not prohibit ga-statement from use here.
8. ∃p (performer = R2-D2, item = Rigoletto)
AND ∄ p (performer = R2-D2, item ≠ Rigoletto)
(optionally) AND ∄ p (performer ≠ R2-D2, item = Rigoletto)
The first clause for wa-statement has the same effect as that for ga-statement. Then second clause reads that there exists no record such that, while having performer = R2-D2, item is not Rigoletto. The third one is equivalent to the second for 7.
We might be able to build a similar table for the sentences about natural numbers and integers (3, 4). A table like below, however, violates the column independence condition being postulated above. If a record has natural_no = Y, then always int = Y. Statements 7 and 8, having foundation on this postulate for the table, cannot be applied where the postulate does not stand.
The ga-statement about natural numbers and integers (4), therefore, cannot be accorded with a proper interpretation. Sentence 3 is still interpreted properly since for a wa-statement, interpretation at table level is not necessary. The relationship between the wa-subject and the predicate is that of set theory (S ⊂ P).
The following is the formal definition of a ga-statement.
For a group of records R, with mutually independent elements from e1 to en,
R = (e1, e2, e3, e4, ...., en)
if a ga-statement exists between two of the elements,
e1-ga e2 da.
then the relationship between the elements is:
∃r (e1 = S, e2 = P)
AND ∄ r (e1 ≠ S, e2 = P)
where S is the subject and P the predicate, of a ga-statement.
This is the logical structure of the ga-statement, often called exhaustive ga.
We have yet to establish a logical representation of the implications of wa-statement outside the table framework.
9. 70点は取った。
Even if individuals may differ in assessing what is different enough from the subject, we can safely assume that a wa-statement entails negative relationships between subjects not being
"similar" to the wa-clause and the predicate. A wa-statement contrasts the subject with other objects belonging to the same class. For the example above, points that are not close to 70 cannot be interpreted as the points scored by the student. If we use Sim(S) as a notation for subjects "similar to S," we get an implication;
10. ¬Sim(S) → ¬P
for a wa-statement.
The primary semantics of a wa-statement, S ⊂ P, can be modified as below in the light of similar subjects:
Sim(S) ⊂ P (S and others similar to S are included in P).
This entails,
11. Sim(S) → P
where
S ∼ Sim(S) ∼ ∞ (∞ ≠ ¬S)
default: Sim(S) = ∞
Due to the subjective nature of Sim(S), we allow it to range from S itself to whatever the speaker pleases, unless it is ¬S. The default value Sim(S) = ∞ is postulated in order to minimise the ¬P conclusion unless context is given to justify shrinking the range of Sim(S).
When Sim(S) is S, 11 and the inverse of 10 are;
S → P
P → S,
This means;
12. S ↔ P
that P and S are equivalents. This has been, in fact, the conclusion of the full-fledged version of statement 8.
The consequence of 11 and 12 is that, when context renders to -wa utmost power of contrasting, the postposition is used for a definite object. If an object in an utterance is equivalent to another, then the object is uniquely identifiable among other objects of the same class; thus the object becomes definite. Even if the opposition definite vs. indefinite plays little role in Japanese syntax,
-wa can be a sort of definite marker by virtue of contrasting. In fact, contrastive function is the primary role of this postposition (contrastive wa).
13. 年とった猫が宿屋に住んでいた。猫は鼠捕りが上手かった。
Also of note here is that "an old cat" is introduced by -ga. Replacing it with -wa causes interpretive dissonance. This may be accounted for by the different levels that -wa and -ga operate. On one hand, -ga, working on table level, requires that such an object indeed exists that meets the criterion denoted by the predicate (∃r (e1 = S, e2 = P)). On the other hand, -wa indicates relationships between propositions, without specifying the truth value of any of them. First, -ga introduces the existence of a cat living in an inn. Then, -wa elaborates on the object at
categorical level.
Conclusion
This has been an attempt at analysing exhaustive ga and contrastive wa in the light of semantics. We have found that the two postpositions work at different semantic levels and that some semantic implications are reflected in syntax. Other syntactic characteristics of wa and ga may be also worthy of semantic examination.
We begin by comparing how -wa and -ga have different implications for a statement that English expresses with; "R2-D2 sang Rigoletto."
1. R2-D2はリゴレットを歌った。
- R2-D2-wa rigoretto-o utatta.
- R2-D2-wa Rigoletto-Accusative singPast
- Rigoletto is likely to be the only piece that the robot sang.
2. R2-D2がリゴレットを歌った。
- R2-D2-ga rigoretto-o utatta.
- R2-D2-ga Rigoletto-Accusative singPast
- The robot is likely to
have been the only performer who sang Rigoletto.
[wa]
S ⊂ P (the subject, S, is part of the set that meets the predicate, P)
[ga]
S ⊃ P (the subject, S, includes as its component the set that meets the predicate, P)
This explanation for wa seems justifiable but ga poses a problem, if we consider the following pair.
3. OK自然数は整数である（ℕ ⊂ ℤ）。
- šizensū-wa sēsū dearu.
- Natural number-wa integer Copula.
- Natural numbers are integers.
4. *整数が自然数である（ℤ ⊃ ℕ）。
- *sēsū-ga šizensū dearu.
We now consider a set of opera performances in order to analyse the semantic implications of -wa and -ga. The table below lists opera performances at Carnegie Hall in the summer of 2006.
Performance at Carnegie Hall
PERFORMER | PERFORM_DATE | ITEM |
|---|---|---|
Cheshire Cat | 2006/07/01 | Othelo |
Moo | 2006/07/03 | The Pirates of Pensance |
| Tom | 2006/08/12 | Lohengrin |
Cheshire Cat | 2006/08/23 | Lohengrin |
Babar | 2006/08/23 | Mikado |
R2-D2 | 2006/09/01 | Rigoletto |
Cheshire Cat | 2006/09/03 | Othelo |
Any useful list of such performances should tell vital information such as performer, date and the performed musical pieces. The table captures them in the three columns, for which we now postulate an important relationship; that each column has values independent of those in other columns. The name of a performer poses no constraints on the date he can perform or the piece he can sing, for example.
Looking at performances on 07/01 and 09/03, we realise that Cheshire Cat was the only performer who sang Othelo during this season. Also, the record for 09/01 shows that R2-D2 was the only one to sing Rigoletto. Without contradicting other performance records, wa/ga postpositions can be used to express these facts.
5. チェシャ猫がオテロを歌った。
- Češa Neko-ga otero-o utatta.
- It was Cheshire Cat that sang Othelo.
- R2-D2-wa rigoretto-o utatta.
- R2-D2 sang Rigoletto only.
(where p is an instance of performance);
7. ∃p (performer = Cheshire Cat, item = Othelo)
AND ∄ p (performer ≠ Cheshire Cat, item = Othelo)
The first clause states that there is indeed a record of Cheshire Cat singing Othelo at the prestigious venue, whereas the second one says there was no other performer who sang Othelo. Note that this formulation is irrelevant of other performances of the grinning feline. In fact Cheshire Cat sang Lohengrin too. This, however, does not prohibit ga-statement from use here.
8. ∃p (performer = R2-D2, item = Rigoletto)
AND ∄ p (performer = R2-D2, item ≠ Rigoletto)
(optionally) AND ∄ p (performer ≠ R2-D2, item = Rigoletto)
The first clause for wa-statement has the same effect as that for ga-statement. Then second clause reads that there exists no record such that, while having performer = R2-D2, item is not Rigoletto. The third one is equivalent to the second for 7.
We might be able to build a similar table for the sentences about natural numbers and integers (3, 4). A table like below, however, violates the column independence condition being postulated above. If a record has natural_no = Y, then always int = Y. Statements 7 and 8, having foundation on this postulate for the table, cannot be applied where the postulate does not stand.
Table of Numbers
NO | NATURAL_NO | INT |
|---|---|---|
1 | Y | Y |
| 2 | Y | Y |
-3 | N | Y |
The ga-statement about natural numbers and integers (4), therefore, cannot be accorded with a proper interpretation. Sentence 3 is still interpreted properly since for a wa-statement, interpretation at table level is not necessary. The relationship between the wa-subject and the predicate is that of set theory (S ⊂ P).
The following is the formal definition of a ga-statement.
For a group of records R, with mutually independent elements from e1 to en,
R = (e1, e2, e3, e4, ...., en)
if a ga-statement exists between two of the elements,
e1-ga e2 da.
then the relationship between the elements is:
∃r (e1 = S, e2 = P)
AND ∄ r (e1 ≠ S, e2 = P)
where S is the subject and P the predicate, of a ga-statement.
This is the logical structure of the ga-statement, often called exhaustive ga.
We have yet to establish a logical representation of the implications of wa-statement outside the table framework.
9. 70点は取った。
- nanajutten-wa totta.
- seventyPoints-wa takePast.
- I got around seventy points.
Even if individuals may differ in assessing what is different enough from the subject, we can safely assume that a wa-statement entails negative relationships between subjects not being
"similar" to the wa-clause and the predicate. A wa-statement contrasts the subject with other objects belonging to the same class. For the example above, points that are not close to 70 cannot be interpreted as the points scored by the student. If we use Sim(S) as a notation for subjects "similar to S," we get an implication;
10. ¬Sim(S) → ¬P
for a wa-statement.
The primary semantics of a wa-statement, S ⊂ P, can be modified as below in the light of similar subjects:
Sim(S) ⊂ P (S and others similar to S are included in P).
This entails,
11. Sim(S) → P
where
S ∼ Sim(S) ∼ ∞ (∞ ≠ ¬S)
default: Sim(S) = ∞
Due to the subjective nature of Sim(S), we allow it to range from S itself to whatever the speaker pleases, unless it is ¬S. The default value Sim(S) = ∞ is postulated in order to minimise the ¬P conclusion unless context is given to justify shrinking the range of Sim(S).
When Sim(S) is S, 11 and the inverse of 10 are;
S → P
P → S,
This means;
12. S ↔ P
that P and S are equivalents. This has been, in fact, the conclusion of the full-fledged version of statement 8.
The consequence of 11 and 12 is that, when context renders to -wa utmost power of contrasting, the postposition is used for a definite object. If an object in an utterance is equivalent to another, then the object is uniquely identifiable among other objects of the same class; thus the object becomes definite. Even if the opposition definite vs. indefinite plays little role in Japanese syntax,
-wa can be a sort of definite marker by virtue of contrasting. In fact, contrastive function is the primary role of this postposition (contrastive wa).
13. 年とった猫が宿屋に住んでいた。猫は鼠捕りが上手かった。
- toshitotta neko-ga yadoya-ni sundeita. neko-wa nezumitori-ga umakatta.
- old cat-ga inn-Locative livePerfectProgressive. cat-wa catchingMice-ga goodAtPast.
- An old cat lived in an inn. The cat was good at catching mice.
Also of note here is that "an old cat" is introduced by -ga. Replacing it with -wa causes interpretive dissonance. This may be accounted for by the different levels that -wa and -ga operate. On one hand, -ga, working on table level, requires that such an object indeed exists that meets the criterion denoted by the predicate (∃r (e1 = S, e2 = P)). On the other hand, -wa indicates relationships between propositions, without specifying the truth value of any of them. First, -ga introduces the existence of a cat living in an inn. Then, -wa elaborates on the object at
categorical level.
Conclusion
This has been an attempt at analysing exhaustive ga and contrastive wa in the light of semantics. We have found that the two postpositions work at different semantic levels and that some semantic implications are reflected in syntax. Other syntactic characteristics of wa and ga may be also worthy of semantic examination.
Tuesday, November 21, 2006
Espavento
Acabei de descobrir essa palavra. Descubri que além do significado que se dá ao spavento italiano, de susto, em português também significa ostentação, luxo, como em O Santo Amaro fora festejado com espavento na freguesia da sua invocação. Vésperas, missa cantada, duplo sermão, e procissão à volta das igrejas, nada faltara para solenizar a festa. (A Morgadinha dos Canaviais, de Júlio Dinis). O mesmo dicionário dá espavento como derivado do italiano spavento, mas pergunto-me como foi possível surgir esse segundo significado que não tem a palavra original em italiano. Talvez a ostentação de algum lugar tenha feito com que alguém se surpreendesse, se assustasse tanto? É possível. Também vejo que como sinônimo do verbo espavantar há o delicioso verbo engalanar, que infelizmente não é tão usado. Todavia, recordo-me tê-lo visto numa canção em língua castelhana, que dizia El día que me quieras, la rosa que engalana, se vestirá de fiesta con su mejor color...
Sunday, November 19, 2006
Bát se, craindre
It is interesting to note that two unrelated languages, Czech and French, share a similar construction when it comes to fearing something:
Czech: Bojím se, aby rodiče nepřijeli pozdě.
French: Je crains que mes parents n'arrivent tard.
English: I am afraid that my parents might get in late or I am afraid lest my parents (should) get in late.
In both Czech and French there is an "unnegated" ne.
Czech: Bojím se, aby rodiče nepřijeli pozdě.
French: Je crains que mes parents n'arrivent tard.
English: I am afraid that my parents might get in late or I am afraid lest my parents (should) get in late.
In both Czech and French there is an "unnegated" ne.
Saturday, November 18, 2006
Complessificare
Sull'argomento "bambinese", il linguaggio usato dai genitori e nonni quando si rivolgono ai bambini, ho trovato questa parola stranissima e bruttissima. Non sarebbe più facile dire complicarsi, come si è sempre detto? O anche qui hanno voluto complicare la parola pronunciandola complessificando? Preciso che complessificare non si trova in alcun vocabolario da me consultato. Lo stesso sito, inoltre, fa uso di bebé e bebè. Si vede che non hanno messo troppa cura nello scriverlo.
Il linguaggio dei genitori verso i propri figli si modifica e si complessifica naturalmente seguendo la crescita del bimbo.
Link
Google riporta 537 occorrenze per complessificare. Una nuova parola starà formandosi? Meno male che ne dà 346.000 per complicare.
Google riporta 537 occorrenze per complessificare. Una nuova parola starà formandosi? Meno male che ne dà 346.000 per complicare.
Friday, November 17, 2006
Palec, prst, палец, прст
Polish palec and Russian палец mean finger/toe. Today it came to my attention that Czech also has palec, but it means thumb. Czech for finger/toe is prst and Macedonian is прст. Interesting.
Wednesday, November 15, 2006
Segundo, récemment vu
There ought to be a name for that word that keeps creeping up after you hear it for the first time, or hear it again after a very long time. What prompted this thinking was the Portuguese word segundo, ordinal number meaning second but also preposition meaning according to. What do the two concepts have in common that they are given the same name? As far as I know, only Italian has one single word for these two things: secondo. Even our Spanish cousins have two words: segundo (number) and según (preposition). Does that mean that Portuguese and Italian speakers, when reporting somebody else's words, are second in spreading it? There must be an explanation. I have spent innumerable sleepless nights thinking about this, and so far no plausible explanation has shaken me and slapped me on the face saying "It's right in front of you, you moron". Anybody got any idea?
Oh, yes, going back to the word, I suggest récemment vu (recently seen). We already have déjà vu (already seen) and I've even heard déjà entendu (already heard), déjà mangé (already eaten) and déjà bu (already drunk). Here's the word in play:
Funny you should say that word. These récemment vus never cease to amaze me, I wonder if I should see a shrink or pay more attention to the world around me.
I think that works!
Oh, and I haven't said why I mentioned segundo earlier in this post. I'd been meaning to write something about it for days and didn't get to it until finally today I heard the word three times with the according to sense and decided I should stop stalling and get down to work.
Oh, yes, going back to the word, I suggest récemment vu (recently seen). We already have déjà vu (already seen) and I've even heard déjà entendu (already heard), déjà mangé (already eaten) and déjà bu (already drunk). Here's the word in play:
Funny you should say that word. These récemment vus never cease to amaze me, I wonder if I should see a shrink or pay more attention to the world around me.
I think that works!
Oh, and I haven't said why I mentioned segundo earlier in this post. I'd been meaning to write something about it for days and didn't get to it until finally today I heard the word three times with the according to sense and decided I should stop stalling and get down to work.
Tuesday, November 14, 2006
Understand? Do I really?
Let's face it: Czech is a weird language. Starting by its name: Czech. Why does it sound like check/cheque? Does that point to the Czechs' predilection for checks instead of cash? Don't know, beats me. What about the Italian name: ceco? It's a homophone with cieco, blind. Does that mean that an unfathomable number of checks are issued daily by a bunch of blind Czechs who don't know who the hell they are writing those checks out for?
And now we shall consider (yes, I can be posh sometimes) a pretty basic verb, rozumět, to understand (I just love those upsidedown hats, don't you?) Any normal person in his right state of mind (go ahead, call me a chauvinistic pig) would think that verb is followed by your regular accusative, but no! Czech doesn't like to be seen in company of its Slavic brethren. It goes for the dative instead. Here are a few examples - from a guy who still doesn't know where to place his Czech critical clitics (I'm not taking any suggestions, thank you).
Russian: Я хорошо понимаю русские книги. - Accusative.
Polish: Dobrze rozumiem ruskie książki. - Accusative.
Macedonian: Добро разбирам руски книги. - Accusative.
Czech: Dobře rozumím ruským knihám. - Dative, ladies and gentlemen!
Go figure!
And now we shall consider (yes, I can be posh sometimes) a pretty basic verb, rozumět, to understand (I just love those upsidedown hats, don't you?) Any normal person in his right state of mind (go ahead, call me a chauvinistic pig) would think that verb is followed by your regular accusative, but no! Czech doesn't like to be seen in company of its Slavic brethren. It goes for the dative instead. Here are a few examples - from a guy who still doesn't know where to place his Czech critical clitics (I'm not taking any suggestions, thank you).
Russian: Я хорошо понимаю русские книги. - Accusative.
Polish: Dobrze rozumiem ruskie książki. - Accusative.
Macedonian: Добро разбирам руски книги. - Accusative.
Czech: Dobře rozumím ruským knihám. - Dative, ladies and gentlemen!
Go figure!
The People of Poets, Thinkers and Readers
Do you want to keep me busy for a couple of hours? Give me some statistical data!
According to the Index Translationum project of the UNESCO, German is by far the most frequent target translation language. The methodology is a bit weird, though. They count publications of translated books and not translations.
The Anglo-Saxon world comes across as culturally self-sufficient. Anglo-Saxon publishers dominate the world scene and yet, German (100 mil. native speakers) beats English (425 mil. native speakers) 2.5 : 1.
Another UNESCO list features the most translated authors. Their definition of a book must be quite permissive because even booklets consisting of 10 pages qualify. I wish I knew where V. I. Lenin, who made it into Top 5 and outperformed both Danielle Steel and William Shakespeare, would end up if only decent sized books had been counted. For Christ's sake, it is a list containing data starting 1979, long after the peak of ideological fervor! Ah, I see: Looks like quite a few of the books were meant for export although they appeared in Moscow or elsewhere within the former USSR.
More stats here. I am sure I will get to play with the expert mode one day.
According to the Index Translationum project of the UNESCO, German is by far the most frequent target translation language. The methodology is a bit weird, though. They count publications of translated books and not translations.
The database contains cumulative bibliographical information on books translated and published in about one hundred of the UNESCO Member States since 1979.Anyway, Germany rocks. You can feel it in German trains and buses; remarkably many people are immersed in reading.
The Anglo-Saxon world comes across as culturally self-sufficient. Anglo-Saxon publishers dominate the world scene and yet, German (100 mil. native speakers) beats English (425 mil. native speakers) 2.5 : 1.
Another UNESCO list features the most translated authors. Their definition of a book must be quite permissive because even booklets consisting of 10 pages qualify. I wish I knew where V. I. Lenin, who made it into Top 5 and outperformed both Danielle Steel and William Shakespeare, would end up if only decent sized books had been counted. For Christ's sake, it is a list containing data starting 1979, long after the peak of ideological fervor! Ah, I see: Looks like quite a few of the books were meant for export although they appeared in Moscow or elsewhere within the former USSR.
More stats here. I am sure I will get to play with the expert mode one day.
Monday, November 13, 2006
Afternoon
Some people say I am a linguist (which isn't right, in the first place), but how hard is it for a supposed linguist to come to realize that afternoon is composed of after + noon? Inexplicable.
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